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Indian reservation is a land managed by a Native American tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs. Reservations were established when White Americans and American Indians signed treaties, which involved the transfer of land; land was also forcibly taken from the American Indians, who had lived in the Americas for thousands of years. Because the land is federal territory and Native Americans have limited national sovereignty, laws on tribal lands vary from the surrounding area. These laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, which attract tourists. There are about 300 Indian reservations in the United States, meaning not all of the country's 550-plus recognized tribes have a reservation — some tribes have more than one reservation, others have none. In addition, because of past land sales and allotments, discussed below, some reservations are severely fragmented. Each piece of tribal, trust, and privately held land is a separate enclave. This random mixing of private and public real estate can create significant administrative difficulties. There are twelve Indian reservations that are larger than the state of Rhode Island (776,960 acres; 3,144 km²) and nine reservations larger than Delaware (1,316,480 acres; 5,327 km²). Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country with some states having none. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, has jurisdiction over reservations. Different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Some Indian reservations were laid out by the federal government, others were outlined by the states. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Native American reservations in modern day Oklahoma. Relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West. Grant pursued a stated "Peace Policy" as a possible solution to the conflict. The policy included a reorganization of the Indian Service, with the goal of relocating various tribes from their ancestral homes to parcels of lands established specifically for their inhabitation. The policy called for the replacement of government officials by religious men, nominated by churches, to oversee the Indian agencies on reservations in order to teach Christianity to the native tribes. The Quakers were especially active in this policy on reservations. The "civilization" policy was aimed at eventually preparing the tribes for citizenship. The policy was controversial from the start. Reservations were generally established by executive order. In many cases, white settlers objected to the size of land parcels, which were subsequently reduced. A report submitted to Congress in 1868 found widespread corruption among the federal Indian agencies and generally poor conditions among the relocated tribes. Many tribes ignored the relocation orders at first and were forced onto their new limited land parcels. In many cases, the policy required the continuing support of the United States Army in the West to restrict the movements of various tribes. The pursuit of tribes in order to force them back onto reservations led to a number of Indian Wars. The most well known conflict was the Sioux War on the northern Great Plains, between 1876 and 1881, which included the Battle of Little Bighorn. Other famous wars in this regard included the Nez Perce War. By the late 1870s, the policy established by Grant was regarded as a failure, primarily because it had resulted in some of the bloodiest wars between Native Americans and the United States. By 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes began phasing out the policy, and by 1882 all religious organizations had relinquished their authority to the federal Indian agency. In 1887, Congress undertook a significant change in reservation policy by the passage of the Dawes Act, or General Allotment (Severalty) Act. The act ended the general policy of granting land parcels to tribes as-a-whole by granting small parcels of land to individual tribe members. In some cases, for example the Umatilla Indian Reservation, after the individual parcels were granted out of reservation land, the reservation area was reduced by giving the excess land to white settlers. The individual allotment policy continued until 1934, when it was terminated by the Indian Reorganization Act. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, also known as the Howard-Wheeler Act, was sometimes called the Indian New Deal. It laid out new rights for Native Americans, reversed some of the earlier privatization of their common holdings, and encouraged self-government and land management by tribes. The act slowed the assignment of tribal lands to individual members, and reduced the assignment of 'extra' holdings to nonmembers. For the following twenty years, the U.S. government invested in infrastructure, health care, and education on the reservations, and over two million acres (8,000 km²) of land were returned to various tribes. The Indian Reorganization Act also provided for termination and relocation of certain tribes. This eventually resulted in the legal dismantling of 61 tribal nations. Some Indian reservations offer a quality of lifе that is among the poorest people found in the world. Life qualities in some reservations are comparable to the quality of life in the developing world. Shannon County, South Dakota, home of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, is routinely described as one of the poorest counties in the nation. In 1979, the Seminole tribe in Florida opened a high-stakes bingo operation on its reservation in Florida. The state attempted to close the operation down but was stopped in the courts. In the 1980s, the case of California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians established the right of reservations to operate other forms of gambling operations. In 1988, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act which recognized the right of Indian tribes to establish gambling and gaming facilities on their reservations as long as the states in which they are located have some form of legalized gambling. Today, many Indian Casinos are used as tourist attractions to draw visitors and revenue to reservations.
Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.Information is the writing of knowledge of any subject. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the earliest historical meaning of the word information in English was the act of informing, or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: "Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind." It was also used for an item of training, e.g. a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise information and techniques." (1386) The English word was apparently derived by adding the common "noun of action" ending "-ation" (descended through French from Latin "-tio") to the earlier verb to inform, in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: "Men so wise should go and inform their kings." (1330) Inform itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb informare, to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word informatio meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word information in English is unclear. As a final note, the ancient Greek word for form was eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by Plato (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see Theory of forms). "Eidos" can also be associated with thought, proposition or even concept. Information is a quality of a message from a sender to one or more receivers. Information is always about something (size of a parameter, occurrence of an event, etc). Viewed in this manner, information does not have to be accurate. It may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a kiss. Even a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in this view be a form of information. However, generally speaking, if the amount of information in the received message increases, the message is more accurate. This model assumes there is a definite sender and at least one receiver. Many refinements of the model assume the existence of a common language understood by the sender and at least one of the receivers. An important variation identifies information as that which would be communicated by a message if it were sent from a sender to a receiver capable of understanding the message. However, in requiring the existence of a definite sender, the "information as a message" model does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation, reading or measurement. Information is a term with many meanings depending on context, but is as a rule closely related to such concepts as meaning, knowledge, instruction, communication, representation, and mental stimulus. Simply stated, information is a message received and understood. In terms of data, it can be defined as a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn. There are many other aspects of information since it is the knowledge acquired through study or experience or instruction. But overall, information is the result of processing, manipulating and organizing data in a way that adds to the knowledge of the person receiving it. Another form of information is Fisher information, a concept of R.A. Fisher. This is used in application of statistics to estimation theory and to science in general. Fisher information is thought of as the amount of information that a message carries about an unobservable parameter. It can be computed from knowledge of the likelihood function defining the system. For example, with a normal likelihood function, the Fisher information is the reciprocal of the variance of the law. In the absence of knowledge of the likelihood law, the Fisher information may be computed from normally distributed score data as the reciprocal of their second moment. Even though information and data are often used interchangeably, they are actually very different. Data is a set of unrelated information, and as such is of no use until it is properly evaluated. Upon evaluation, once there is some significant relation between data, and they show some relevance, then they are converted into information. Now this same data can be used for different purposes. Thus, till the data convey some information, they are not useful. A complementary way of measuring information is provided by algorithmic information theory. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is to compute the list through a program: the information content of a sequence is the number of bits of the shortest program that computes it. The sequence below would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each symbol, since they are statistically random, and each new symbol would increase the measurement. It is important to recognize the limitations of traditional information theory and algorithmic information theory from the perspective of human meaning. For example, when referring to the meaning content of a message Shannon noted “Frequently the messages have meaning… these semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem. The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected from a set of possible messages” (emphasis in original). Micheal Reddy noted that "'signals' of the mathematical theory are 'patterns that can be exchanged'. There is no message contained in the signal, the signals convey the ability to select from a set of possible messages." In information theory "the system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design". Information is any represented pattern. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an object and its representation. Consider the following example: economic statistics represent an economy, however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as data in computing, statistics, and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. The electro-magnetic patterns in a computer network and connected devices are related to something other than the pattern itself, such as text characters to be displayed and keyboard input. Signals, signs, and symbols are also in this category. On the other hand, according to semiotics, data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain semantic. Painting and drawing contain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a profile, or a landscape. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This would be the case whether or not there was anyone to perceive it. But if information can be defined merely as a pattern, does that mean that neither utility nor meaning are necessary components of information? Arguably a distinction must be made between raw unprocessed data and information which possesses utility, value or some quantum of meaning. On this view, information may indeed be characterized as a pattern; but this is a necessary condition, not a sufficient one. An individual entry in a telephone book, which follows a specific pattern formed by name, address and telephone number, does not become "informative" in some sense unless and until it possesses some degree of utility, value or meaning. For example, someone might look up a girlfriend's number, might order a take away etc. The vast majority of numbers will never be construed as "information" in any meaningful sense. The gap between data and information is only closed by a behavioral bridge whereby some value, utility or meaning is added to transform mere data or pattern into information. When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object (sampling) or use a system of signs to replace (encoding), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a "sample" of a product; an example of the latter is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things (decoding). One example of the former is to sip a soup to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some "sender" of information. Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium. Often information is viewed as a type of input to an organism or designed device. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device (energy) by themselves. In his book Sensory Ecology, Dusenbery called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function. Information is any type of sensory input. When an organism with a nervous system receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, while abstract painting does not represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object. Entertainment in general is not intended to be informative. Music, the performing arts, amusement parks, works of fiction and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not necessarily forms of information according to some definitions given above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is. Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose. In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in physics to define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way). Information has a well defined meaning in physics. Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an "entangled" relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry. Another link is demonstrated by the Maxwell's demon thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, entropy, is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat. Thus, in the study of logic gates, the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an AND gate is higher than for the NOT gate (because information is destroyed in an AND gate and simply converted in a NOT gate). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of quantum computers. Records are a specialized form of information. Essentially, records are information produced consciously or as by-products of business activities or transactions and retained because of their value. Primarily their value is as evidence of the activities of the organization but they may also be retained for their informational value. Sound records management ensures that the integrity of records is preserved for as long as they are required. The international standard on records management, ISO 15489, defines records as "information created, received, and maintained as evidence and information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the transaction of business". The International Committee on Archives (ICA) Committee on electronic records defined a record as, "a specific piece of recorded information generated, collected or received in the initiation, conduct or completion of an activity and that comprises sufficient content, context and structure to provide proof or evidence of that activity". Records may be retained because of their business value, as part of the corporate memory of the organization or to meet legal, fiscal or accountability requirements imposed on the organization. Willis (2005) expressed the view that sound management of business records and information delivered "…six key requirements for good corporate governance…transparency; accountability; due process; compliance; meeting statutory and common law requirements; and security of personal and corporate information."
Bats are the only mammals capable of true flight. However, there are several gliding mammals which are able to glide from tree to tree using fleshy membranes between their limbs; some can travel hundreds of meters in this way with very little loss in height. Flying tree frogs use greatly enlarged webbed feet for a similar purpose, and there are flying lizards which employ their unusually wide, flattened rib-cages to the same end. Certain snakes also use a flattened rib-cage to fly, with a back and forth motion much the same as they use on the ground. Flying fish can glide using enlarged wing-like fins, and have been observed soaring for hundreds of meters using the updraft on the leading edges of waves. It is thought that this ability was chosen by natural selection because it was an effective means of escape from underwater predators. Most birds fly (see bird flight), with some exceptions. The largest birds, the ostrich and the emu, are earthbound, as were the now-extinct dodos, while the non-flying penguins have adapted their wings for use under water. Most small flightless birds are native to small islands, and lead a lifestyle where flight would confer little advantage. The Peregrine Falcon is the fastest animal in the world; its terminal velocity exceeds 370 km/h (199 mph) in a dive.
An airline provides air transport services for passengers or freight, generally with a recognized operating certificate or license. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit. Airlines vary from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating many hundreds of airplanes. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, intracontinental, or domestic and may be operated as scheduled services or charters. Tony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-routes, which would, through time and mergers, evolve into Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines, to name a few. At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan American World Airways, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am was the only U.S. airline to go international before the 1940s. KLM, the oldest carrier still operating under its original name, was founded in 1919. The first flight (operated on behalf of KLM by Aircraft Transport and Travel) transported two English passengers to Schiphol, Amsterdam from London in 1920. Like other major European airlines of the time (see France and the UK below), KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (Dutch Indies). It is only after the loss of the Dutch Empire that KLM found itself based at a small country with few potential passengers, depending heavily on transfer traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-system to facilitate easy connections. France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged with several other airlines into what became Air France. In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair, one of the oldest still-operating airlines in the world) was signed in the city of Helsinki on 12 September 1923. Junkers F 13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on 14 March 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on 20 March 1924, one week later. Germany's Lufthansa began in 1926. Lufthansa, unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were the most advanced in the world at the time. The peak of German air travel came in the mid-1930s, when Nazi propaganda ministers approved the start of commercial zeppelin service: the big airships were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used flammable hydrogen gas raised safety concerns that culminated with the Hindenburg disaster of 1937. The reason they used hydrogen instead of the not-flammable helium gas was a United States military embargo on helium. The British company Aircraft Transport and Travel commenced a London to Paris service on th 25 August 1919, this was the world's first regular international flight. The United Kingdom's flag carrier during this period was Imperial Airways, which became BOAC (British Overseas Airlines Co.) in 1939. Imperial Airways used huge Handley-Page biplanes for routes between London, the Middle East, and India: images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the Rub'al Khali, being maintained by Bedouins, are among the most famous pictures from the heyday of the British Empire. The first country in Asia to embrace air transport was the Philippines. Philippine Airlines was founded on February 26, 1941, making it Asia's oldest carrier still operating under its current name. The airline was started by a group of businessmen led by Andres Soriano, hailed as one of the Philippines' leading industrialists at the time. The airline’s first flight was made on March 15, 1941 with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount. Notably Philippine Airlines leased Japan Airlines their first aircraft, a DC-3 named "Kinsei". On July 31, 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland,California from Nielson Airport in Makati City with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the Philippines flag carrier. Another airline company to begin early operations was Air India, which had its beginning as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group) by India's leading industrialist JRD Tata. On October 15, 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vincent. Following the end of World War II, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946 under the name Air India. After the Independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International. Neighbouring countries also soon embraced air transport, notably with Cathay Pacific founded in 1946, Singapore Airlines and Malaysian Airlines in 1947 (as Malayan Airways), Garuda Indonesia in 1949 and Japan Airlines founded in 1951. With the outbreak of World War Two, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload. The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody ("jumbo jet") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. As the business cycle returned to normalcy, major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new startups. Only America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under. In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Indeed, the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel, as many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, for almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put intercity bus lines under pressure, and most have withered away. Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. Today, almost every single legacy carrier except for American Airlines have operated under Chapter 11 bankruptcy provisions or have gone out of business. Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, the government often intervenes to halt airline labor actions in order to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety. The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, the United Kingdom and Japan have "deregulated" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets, and average fares tend to drop 20% or more. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes. Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air," a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas. In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions. One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Profitability is likely to improve in the future as privatization continues and more competitive low-cost carriers proliferate. Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments. Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, in order to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes. A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control ("O&D control"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for $200 (AUD) is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay $1400 (AUD). Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily. The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). Price discrimination is considered an anti-business practice, and is defined as price discriminations definition: different prices for identical products. Technically this is the total of the specific action of the other airline, without violating laws. The archaic airlines, with hub-systems and unprofitable pricing structures, have legally defined this term as an attack on business, although this act is not outside of law. The low cost carriers (LCC's) are new on the scene and did not have the contacts or resources to outlaw this definition of a purely legal business practice (in which they chose to participate) as a monopolistic practice to those with the aforementioned archaic pricing structure. The national carriers have yet to define how discrimination is an intenionally harmful and volitionally detrimental act upon their business by a competitor. Laws protecting business can be applied, or those who have the greatest impact may insinuate without proof that they are treated unfairly, and can thus use their legal status as the defendant to limit LCC's manuevaribility within the market. An example is that they demand taxes from the US government for specific airports, for which the National's receive exemption or subsidy for either a)seniority/grandfathering treatment, or b)legal status as financially on the brink (i.e. pre-bankruptcy). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term "fare war" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world. Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs in order to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers. Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed, however, due to a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes, and surcharges they have little or no control over, and these are passed through to various providers. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the originating country. In contrast, Southwest Airlines has been the most profitable of airline companies since 1970. Indeed, some sources have calculated Southwest to be the best performing stock over the period, outperforming Microsoft and many other high performing companies. The chief reasons for this are their product consistency and cost control. The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects, and like Southwest, they are able to eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle. As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. United Airlines, US Airways (twice), Delta Air Lines, and Northwest Airlines have all declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and American has barely avoided doing so. Alitalia, Scandinavian Airlines System, SABENA, Swissair, Japan Air System, Viasa, Air Canada, Ansett Australia, and others have flirted with or declared bankruptcy since 1995, as low cost entrants enter their home markets as well. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of "undead" airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via bankruptcy law. On the other hand, some have pointed out that the reduction in capacity would be short lived given that there would be large quantities of relatively new aircraft that bankruptcies would want to get rid of and would re-enter the market either as increased fleets for the survivors or the basis of cheap planes for new startups. Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs. A second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000-2005 period. In view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. Code sharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' code sharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on flights from Tokyo to Moscow: Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian- Sabena partnership on the Vienna-Brussels-New York JFK route during the late 60's, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian colors. Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as "show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf"), an airline who is able to code share with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago-Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that Airline 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and Airline 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms so as to increase sales. Often the companies combine IT operations, buy fuel, or purchase airplanes as a bloc in order to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses a airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centers. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, BOAC while America West used Cactus reflecting that company's home in the state of Arizona and to differentiate itself from numerous other airlines using America and West in their call signs. The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance precede five or six years of improved performance. But profitability in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse.
Indian reservation land management is from a Native American tribe in the United States Department of Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs. Reservations were introduced when white Americans and Indians signed treaties, which involved the transfer of land; land was also forcibly taken from the Indians, who had lived in America for thousands of years. Because the land is a federal territory and Native Americans have limited sovereignty, laws on tribal lands differs from the surrounding area. These laws may allow legal reservations about casinos, which attract tourists. There are some 300 Indian reservations in the United States, meaning not all of the country 550 - plus recognized tribes that have a reservation - some tribes that have more than one reservation, but had no such problem. Furthermore, due to the past of land and shares of sales, discussed below, some reservations are severely fragmented. Each piece of tribal, trust, and the private land is a separate enclave. This random mixing of private and public real estate can create significant administrative challenges. There are twelve Indian reservations that are larger than the state of Rhode Island (776960 acres; 3144 km ²) and nine reservations larger than Delaware (1316480 acres; 5327 km ²). Reservations are not evenly distributed across the country with some states having no. The tribal council, not the local or federal government has jurisdiction over reservations. Different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not reproduce the forms of government found outside the reservation. Several Indian reservations as defined by the federal government, while others were exposed by the states. By 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Native American reservations and current Oklahoma. Relations between the settlers and natives had all the worse as settlers encroached on its territory and natural resources and the West. Grant said followed a "Peace Policy" as a possible solution to the conflict. The policy included a reorganization of the Indian Agency, with the aim of relocating various tribes from their ancestral homes in tracts of land established specifically for inhabitation. The policy calls for the replacement of government officials by religious men, who are appointed by the churches, to help oversee services on Indian reservations, to teach Christianity in the indigenous tribes. The Quakers were particularly active on this policy on reservations. The "culture" policy aimed at preparing tribes eventually for citizenship. The policy has been controversial from the start. Reservations were generally fixed by an executive order. In many cases, the white settlers objected to the size of the parcels, which were later reduced. A report submitted to Congress in 1868 found widespread corruption among the federal Indian services and generally poor conditions migrated between the sexes. Many tribes ignored orders relocation in the first and were forced into their new limited parcels. In many cases, the policy required for the continued support of the Army of the United States and the West to restrict the movements of different races. The pursuit of gender, in order to force them back on reservations have led to some Indian Wars. The most famous was the Sioux War conflict in the northern Great Plains, between 1876 and 1881, which included the Battle of Little Bighorn. Other famous wars in this field include the Nez Perce War. From the late Decade 1870, the policy established by Grant was considered a failure, mainly because it resulted in some of the bloodiest wars between Native Americans and the United States. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes started the gradual abolition of the policy, from 1882, and all religious organizations have lost their power to the federal Indian agency. In 1887, Congress took a significant change in the policy of detention by the passage of the Dawes Act, or General Allotment (Severalty) Act. The act ended the general policy of granting parcels race as a whole, on the award small parcels of land to individual members of the tribe. In some cases, for example, the Umatilla Indian Reservation, after the separate parcels which were granted by the detention of land, the reservation area was reduced, giving the extra land to white settlers. Their individual policy continued until 1934, when he was terminated by the Indian Reorganization Act. The Indian Reconstituting Act 1934, also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act, was sometimes called the Indian New Deal. That provided new rights for Native Americans, reversed some of the older privatisation of their joint holdings and encourage self-government and land management by tribes. The operation slowed down the assignment of the land of equality individual members, and reduced the assignment 'extra' holdings to nonmembers. For the following twenty years, the American government has invested in infrastructure, health care, education and the reservations, and more than two million acres (8000 km ²) of land was returned to the various tribes. The Indian Reorganization Act also provided for the termination and relocation of certain tribes. This ultimately resulted in the dissolution of the legal 61 tribal nations. Several Indian reservations offer a quality lif е he's the poorest people found. Qualities of life in a certain reticence is comparable to the quality of life in the developing world. Shannon County, South Dakota, home of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, is commonly described as one of the poorest provinces in the nation. In 1979, the Seminole tribe in Florida, opened a high-stakes bingo operation on its reservation in Florida. The state has tried to close down their businesses, but was stopped in the courts. In the decade of 1980, the case of California at Cabazon Band of Mission Indians established the right of reservations to operate other forms of gambling companies. In 1988, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatorna Act, which recognized the right of Indian tribes to establish gambling and gambling facilities on their reservations as long as the Member States in which they are located have some form of legalized gambling to . Today, several Indian Casinos used as tourist attractions to draw visitors and revenues reservations.
Information as concept supports a diversity of the significances, day labourer use with technical arrangements. Generally, the concept of information is closely related to the notions of the constraint, communication, order, data, form, instruction, knowledge, significance, mental stimulus, model, perception, and representation.Information is the writing of the knowledge of any subject. According to the dictionary of English of Oxford, the historical significance earliest of information of word in English was the act to inform, or to give the form or the form to the spirit, as in education, the instruction, or training. A quotation of 1387: "five books go down from the sky for the information of humanity." It was also employed for an article of the formation, for example a particular instruction. "Melibee had heard the great qualifications and reasons of Prudence injury, and its information and techniques wise." (1386) the English word was apparently derived by adding the "common noun from the action" tio of end it "- the ation" (gone down by the French from Latin "-") with the verb earlier to be informed, in the direction to give the form to the spirit, to discipline, inform, teach: the "so wise men should go to inform their kings." (1330) get information that comes (by the intermediary of the French) from the Latin informare of verb, to give the form to, to form an idea of. Moreover, already equal Latin himself contained the concept or the idea of significance of informatio of word, but the point to which this could have influenced the development of information of English word is not very clear. Like final note, the ancient word of Greek for the form was eidos, and this word was celebrates employed in a technical philosophical direction by Plato (and late Aristote) to indicate the identity or the ideal gasoline of something (see the theory of forms). "Eidos" can also be associated the thought, the proposal or even the concept. Information is a quality of a message of a shipper to one or more receivers. Information is always about something (size of a parameter, occurrence of an event, etc.). Seen this manner, information should not be precise. It can be a truth or a lie, or right the noise of a kiss. Even a disruptive noise prevented the flow of communication and to create the misunderstanding in this sight would be a form of information. However, generally, if the quantity of information in the received message increases, the message is more precise. This model supposes that there are a definite shipper and at least a receiver. Many improvements of the model assume the existence of a common language included/understood by the shipper and at least that of the receivers. An important variation identifies information as that which would be communicated by a message if it were sent of a shipper to a receiver able of arrangement the message. However, by requiring the existence of a defined shipper, the "information the model as message" does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something which can be extracted starting from an environment, for example, by the observation, the reading or measurement. Information is a limit with many significances according to the context, but in general is closely related to concepts such as the significance, knowledge, the instruction, the communication, the representation, and the mental stimulus. Simply indicated, information is a message received and included/understood. In terms of data, it can be defined as collection of facts of which conclusions can be drawn. There are many of other aspects of information since it is the knowledge acquired by the study or the experiment or the instruction. But total, information is the result treating, operating and organizing data of a way in which is added to the knowledge of the person receiving it. Another form of information is the information of Fisher, a concept of R.A. Fisher. This is employed in the application of the statistics to the theory of evaluation and science in general. The information of Fisher is regarded as quantity of information that a message diffuses about an inobservable parameter. It can be calculated knowledge of the function of probability defining the system. For example, with a normal function of probability, the information of Fisher is reciprocal dissension of the law. In the absence of the knowledge of the law of probability, the information of Fisher can be calculated normally distributed data of points as reciprocal of their second moment. Though the information and of the data are often employed one for the other, they are really very different. The data are a whole of independent information, and bus such is useless until it is correctly evaluated. On the evaluation, once that there is a certain significant relation between the data, and they show relevance, then they are converted into information. Maintaining these same data can be employed for various goals. Thus, until the data give of information, they are not useful. A complementary manner to measure information is provided by algorithmic theory of information. In short, this measures the content of information of a list of symbols based on at which point they foreseeable are, or more specifically as it easy is to calculate the list by a program: the content of information of an order is the number of little the shortest program which calculations it. The order below would have a very low algorithmic measurement of information since it is a very foreseeable model, and bus the model continues measurement would not change. The information of Shannon would give the same measurement of information for each symbol, since they are statistically random, and each new symbol would increase measurement. It is important to identify the limitations of the traditional theory of the information and the algorithmic theory of the information of the prospect for the human significance. For example, when to report itself to the content of significance of a Shannon message noted "frequently the messages have the significance... that these semantic aspects of communication are nonrelevant with the problem of technology. The significant aspect is that the real message is selected among a whole of possible messages "(emphase in the original). Micheal Reddy noted that "the ' signals of the mathematical theory are ' models which can be exchanged '. There is no message contained in the signal, the signals give the capacity to choose among a whole of possible messages." In the information theory "the system must be conceived to function for each possible choice, not simply one which will be really selected since it is unknown per hour of the design". Information is any model represented. This sight assumes neither exactitude nor the directly communicating parts, but assumes in the place a separation between an object and its representation. Consider the following example: the economic statistics represent an economy, in some manner that inaccurately. What generally indicated under the name of data in calculation, statistics, and other fields, are the forms of information in this direction. The electromagnetic models in a data-processing network and devices connected are related to something other that the model itself, such as the characters of the texts shown being and the entry of keyboard. The signals, signs, and the symbols are also in this category. In addition, according to semiotics, the data are symbols with certain syntax and information is data with certain a semantics. To paint and draw contain information insofar as they represent something such as a set of the objects on a table, a profile, or a landscape. In other words, when a model of something is transposed to a model of another thing, the last is information. It would be the case if there were no matter whom to perceive it. But if information can be simply defined like model, this means that neither the utility nor the significance are the components necessary of information? Discutablement a distinction must be made between the raw not-treated data and the information which has the utility, the value or a certain quantum of the significance. On this sight, information can indeed be characterized like model; but it is a condition necessary, not sufficient. An individual entry in a telephone directory, which follows a formed specific model of name, addresses and telephone number, does not become "instructive" in a certain direction unless and until it has a certain degree of utility, value or significance. For example, somebody could seek the number of a girl friend, could order one to carry etc... The large majority of numbers will never be interpreted as "an information" in any signicatif direction. Space between the data and information is only filled by a behavioral bridge by which a certain value, utility or significance are added to transform only data or model into information. When one builds a representation with object, one can selectively extract starting from the object (taking away) or employ a system of the signs to replace (coding), or from both. The taking away and coding have like consequence the representation. An example of old is a "sample" of a product; an example of the last is "verbal description" of a product. Both contain the information of the product, in a some way that vague. When the representation is interpreted, one can envisage a broader model of a limited number of observations (inference) or include/understand the relation between the models of two different things (decoding). An example of old is with the SIP a soup to know if it is corrupted; an example of the last examines prints of step to determine the animal and its state. In both cases, transmitters of information are not built or are not presented by a certain "shipper" of information. Without worrying, information is dependent at the time, but usually independent of and separated from, the medium or the media employed to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of little, or even the output has in the past interpreted by a computer or a similar device, is of no importance, unless when somebody or something is present to interpret information. Consequently, a quantity of information is completely distinct from its medium. Often information is looked like a type of entry to a organization or a designed device. The entries are of two kinds. Some entries are important for the function of the organization (for example, food) or of the device (energy) by themselves. In its sensory ecology of book, Dusenbery called these causal entries. Other entries (information) are important only because they are associated the causal entries and can be employed to envisage the occurrence of a causal entry at a posterior time (and perhaps at a different place). Information is important because of association with other information but thereafter there must is a connection with a causal entry. In practice, information is usually disseminated by the weak stimuli which must be detected by the specialized sensory systems and to be amplified by energy absorptions before they can be functional with the organization or the device. For example, the light is often a causal entry with the factories but provides information to the animals. The considered coloured light of a flower is too weak to carry out much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the nervous system of the bee employs information to guide the bee with the flower, where the bee often finds the nectar or the pollen, which are the causal entries, fulfilling a food function. Information is any type of sensory entry. When a organization with a nervous system receives an entry, it transforms the entry into electric signal. It is the information considered by some. The idea of the representation is still suitable, but in a slightly different way. I.e., whereas abstract painting does not represent anything concretely, when the televiewer sees painting, it nevertheless is transformed into electric signals which create a representation of painting. With definite in this way, information should not be related on the truth, the communication, or the representation of an object. The entertainment in general is not designed to be instructive. The music, arts of execution, the parks of recreation, work of the fiction and so on are thus forms of information in this direction, but they are not form necessarily of information according to some definitions given above. Consider another example: nutrition and taste of food provisioning for those which eat it. If information is equalized with the sensory entry, then the nutrition is not information but the taste is. Information is any type of model which influences the formation or the transformation of other models. In this direction, there is not no need for a spirit conscious of perceiving, much less appreciate, the model. Consider, for example, the ADN. The order of the nucleotides is a model which influence the formation and the development of a organization without any need for conscious spirit. Sometimes the theory of systems seems to be referred to information in this direction, arrogant information does not imply necessarily any conscious spirit, and of the models circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can say that information in this direction something is potentially perceived like representation, although not created or presented to this end. In 2003, J D. claimed Bekenstein there is an increasing tendency in physics to define the physical world as being made in information itself (and information is thus defined in this way). Information has a significance well defined in physics. The examples of this include the phenomenon of the tangle of quantum where the particles can act one on the other without reference to their separation or speed of light. Information itself cannot travel more quickly than the light even if information is transmitted indirectly. This could carry out to the fact that all the attempts to physically observe a particle with a report/ratio "empêtré" with the other are slowed down, though the particles are connected in a no other way other than by information they carry. Another bond is shown by the experiment of thought of the demon of the maxwell' S. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and a physical property different, entropy, is shown. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practice this often means to produce heat. Thus, in the study of the doors of logic, the theoretical lower limit of thermal energy released by AND it door is higher than for STEP the door (because information is not destroyed in AND carries it and is simply converted in STEP a door). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of computers of quantum. The discs are a specialized form of information. Primarily, the discs are information produced consciously or like by-products of the economic activities or the transactions and maintained because of their value. Mainly their value is as obviousness of the activities of the organization but they can also be maintained for their informational value. The healthy management of the registers makes sure that the integrity of the discs is preserved as much as they are requested. The international standard on the management of the registers, OIN 15489, defines discs as "an information created, received, and maintained like obviousness and information by an organization or a person, under the terms of legal engagements or in the transaction of the businesses". The international committee of the Committee of files (ICA) on the electronic discs defined a disc as, "a specific piece of recorded information produced, gathered or received in release, the control or the achievement of an activity and that comprises the sufficient contents, context and the structure to provide the proof or the obviousness of this activity". The discs can be maintained because of their commercial value, as an element the storage of corporation of the organization or to answer legal, tax requirements or of responsibility imposed on the organization. Willis (2005) was in opinion that the healthy management of the files of the businesses and information provided "... six principal conditions for the good transparency of government of corporation...; responsibility; process due; conformity; to answer requirements of statutory right and coutoumier; and safety of personal information and corporation."
Bats are the only mammals capable of true flight. However, the glider is a few mammals. Gaeit suit. Gliding trees, their limbs from the tree using the meat between the mucosa; very small part of the suit. Loss to travel hundreds of meters altitude. Flying tree frog legs for a similar purpose and greatly expanding its use of the flying lizards ohribal abnormally wide employment, collapsed rib - Cage to the same exit. In addition, certain snakes rib - Cage used to fly back and forth motion, which is the same as that collapsed on the floor. Gliding by using the expanded wing. Suit - like flying fish fin, and the surge has been observed for hundreds of meters using a rising wave of the leading edge. It is thought that this feature assume by natural selection because it is an effective means of the water can escape from a predator. Most of the birds fly (see birds flying), and some exceptions. Up to birds, ostriches and monetary integration, aboveground, we - and not the extinction of dodos, on the other hand adaptation - penguin flying under the wing of the water for use. Most of the small and medium-sized flightless birds main islands, and the flight of one of the advantages of living in consultation where a small map. Falcon is the world's fastest animal; terminal speeds in excess of 370km / mac (199mph) in the diving.
The aviation recognized the passenger or fare provides a hazard karate service, to the certificate or the license which it operates generally. Aviation supplying this service hazard it forms a community spirit or an alliance it borrows their aircraft which it does not know in different aviation but has a trade name profit. The aviation under the sufficiency which the airplane operates many hundreds the airplane which is simple with service international aviation from them, changes in mail or the freight which it carries. Air service it operates the continent for it does not know, the intracontinental or domestic in the Iss scheduled flight side or the charter which could be classified reasoning. In order some distinction the Jannus the American first, the Delta Airlines line and Braniff attempt, America Online and Yoo age mote tu aviation (division of original step Ing), Trans world-wide aviation and the north wey su thu on aviation, and the eastern piece air line, will evolve theyn the place, the Tony which commands the civil aviation misconduct which in the hazard 1914 January 1st matter which will split it plans the petersburg transports with hour and merger. In order to create the place air network it will connect the United States in the world theyn in same time, the JuanTrippe started the cruciform army, he his aviation, in the fleet of the misconduct boat which su Aen Jel ley su it connects to with an injury and Boston in pan London attains this aim, with American world-wide attempt. It was a American aviation which is only pan cancer silver will go to an international before 1940's. Long the transportation unit which becomes founded at 1919 the KLM it operates yet in the lower part of it original name. (The AircraftTransport and travel operate with substitution of the KLM) the virgin misconduct to the Schiphol to 2 person British passenger,1920 years transported Amsterdam from London. The Europe aviation which hour is different important the growth which together (see France and the UK on lower part), the KLM reaches depended necessary in the colonial property (The Netherlands Indies) which is wide connects service heavily. It KLM form with the some be latent passenger foundation let in the small country and it was immediately after losing the The Netherlands empire, it discovered heavily, in order to promote an easy connection introduces the hub system in thing flesh mobile traffic of the first which it depended. France at 1919 it becomes the post exchange at 1927 air mail service, attached a new name in Morocco and as the A3eropostale started to inject, in order to reach the international transportation price which is important at capital and. At 1933, the thing reasoning A3eropostale which matches in Air france some went to a bankruptcy in different aviation, it was nationalized and it was merged. From Finland, establishes aircraft O/Y (now Finnair, the charter which inside the world long it becomes grudge of aviation which operates yet) signed the inside the city of Helsinki at 1923 September 12th. By an aviation Gid righteousness F 13D-335 the Junkers where becomes the first aircraft of the company had it delivery at,1924 year March 14th and it went. The virgin misconduct was between Helsinki and in the Tallinn, capital, and 1924 March 20th of Estonia, 1 weeks it happened lately. Germany Lufthansa started at 1926. The Lufthansa when is big most and the different aviation division is different, became the investor who above Europe is important inside aviation, it provided capital to the Varig and the Avianca. The Junkers, the Dornier, and the gun by the flag big the Germany airliner which it constructs when progressing most inside the world. When the arrest attention minister commerce z Ub the service which it opens start approving, the spearhead of Germany air travel came in middle of 1930's,: The big airship was symbol of industrial influence, it used the combustibility hydrogen gas but, it proposed the immediacy worry where 1937 facts culminate in Hindenburg disaster. The reason which uses the hydrogen in substitution of the combustibles helium gas where are not them was American army embargo in the helium. The British company aircraft transports and the world-wide first schedule one international line which is this of London which at thorium 1919 August 25th it starts in Paris service it travels. During this duration British flag carrier BOAC (British overseas aviation Co.) It was a oyn empire attempt, at 1939. The empire attempt the route between London, the Middle East and India hazard used the handley page biplane which is enormous: The image of the empire aircraft by the Bedouins it is between the picture which most from golden age of british empire is maintained on the very middle of the Rub'alKhali, is noble and wise. The first country was Philippine Islands inside Asia which accepts a karate. The Filipino aviation discovers at 1941 February 26th, to it from Asia which it operates yet in the lower part of it currently name long will make the transportation unit which becomes the n. which The aviation was started Philippine Islands by the AndresSoriano which in grudge of the production dealers concerned who is important when it calls in big sound by the group of the businessman who becomes the map. The aviation virgin misconduct it between the Baguio started a service everyday from with 1941 March 15th Manila (Nielson field), in order to expand in the DC-3 and the Vickers own making large aircraft the beech model which is simple 18NPC-54 in the aircraft to be late it did. It was prominent and the Filipino aviation borrowed Japan Airlines their first aircraft, by the DC-3 "it had become distinction Kinsei". At 1946 July 31st, the Filipino aviation DC-4 which gives a patent inside Guam in standstill inside the Makati city from the Nielson airport Oakland, California and Wake Island, Jones the atoll and Honolulu which it shakes off, in order to intersect Pacific Ocean will make the first Asia aviation in the PAL in Hawaii the American military personnel of 40 people the ferried. Manila and San Francisco company regular service were started inside December. The aviation was instructed as the Filipino flag carrier, it was during this year. Starts the mobility which reaches the different group airline India by the production dealers concerned JRDTata who is important, the division of Tata son Ltd. of the Air india where at 1932 it initially is with Tata aviation (now Tata) was. That oneself 15th of 1932 October, to the J.R.D.Tata from Karachi the De the enginedHavillandPuss moth which is simple it flew the air mail (mail mail of empire attempt) which it carries to Ahmedabad light oil Bombay. The NevillVincent the aircraft continued in Bellary light oil Madras which the royal air force pilot manages. The sound which world war ii rolls up, the schedule grudge commerce service was rehabilitatedded from India and the Tata aviation hung an Air india name and at 1946 July 29th it matched at the aerial limited liability company. After becoming independent of India, 49% of aviation was acquired by the government of India. Inside returning, the aviation hung an international Air india name and the flag carrier which the broad way is instructed a international service from India the condition which operates it was presented. Contiguity debt to country also quickly at 1947 at 1946, Singapore aviation division Malaysian aviation (end ley with this person attempt) at,1949 years the Garuda Indonesia and Japan Airlines which it founds at 1951 karate, it was prominent in Cathay Pacific Ocean which it discovers and it accepted. In outbreak of world war 2, the aviation existence military aid and the different person donates the hazard their aircraft inside Asia and to the standstill which is related at the flag carrier which is new, use it came. The world war ii, in world war i airline industry, brought a new life. From the large contract where is the many aviation inside the country which it unites it overflowed in the army, the passenger and the freight all hazard citizen karate it foresaw a hazard future explosive characteristic demand. Lockheed constellation of step Ing Stratocruiser, and to be more wrong su it invested in the flagship which DC-6 air travel comes out being new and them desired eagerly. About the maximum quantity of the new aircraft at pressure with updated technology research put a foundation in the B-29 American bomber which stands in the first. The maximum quantity the speed which it adds and compared to company one carrying capacity proposed the efficiency which from all increases. When step Ing 747, pulse board compared to the glass DC-10, and the LockheedL-1011 standard widebody ("formation passenger jet") service inaugurates yet inside international travel, aviation after hazard the support which will grow will come in 1970's, theyn the place. The TupolevTu-144 and it west boy lattice, in supersonic waves travel actuality the Concorde. At 1972, the Airbus the Europe airliner until currently got up the successful line commerce and it was started. The efficiency which hazard adds this aircraft inside speed, but inside passenger accommodating quantity, carrying capacity and scope was not at any time and. When the business cycle gives back in the normality, the aviation which is important new commencement was flooded at any time and the improve price which sinks and their routes, of itself it charged and additional accommodating quantity it governed. Only American west aviation (dozen which is, even hundreds, broad way which goes to lower part, in because to merge in American attempt) from this newly entering sleeping time intention it was remaining in the deep survivor. Inside many method, inside the environment which abolishes a rule the air passenger the most big winner was. The explosive growth where truly, the United States air travel hazard demand is many, it is not assuredly, it was rare and it flew and before the schedule one flyer, even free misconduct and did not become receiving a different profit as witnessed many millions from combination customer on-board visitor loyalty program and their misconduct. In the city where the enterprise flyer is different day l possibility being new service and a higher frequency means, the enterprise it does, inside the country at almost what kind of point hazard same day, it gives back. The air travel advantage the city for bus line let in the lower part of pressure, the maximum quantity humbly refused far. Airline industry 50 years in last were severe consequently and it did to be dejected, to be fit it separated from, it changed. Industry the first which abolishes a rule with the market which is important, American aviation almost what kind of different the country or endurance compared to compared to experienced a riot at 1978. My bankruptcy law today, when it excepted a America Online, almost the angle the miscarriage transportation unit which is simple the operation one enterprise went out to the bankruptcy urgent lower part. To the many country the government has and there is a national aviation which operates. It is sufficient and the personal aviation economy, politics and immediacy matter of concern and interest hazard does a many government rule under conditions and. When for example and the person, communication, in order to protect the flow where the without different Ground Component Command the goods is free and compromise immediacy, the government intervenes to a standstill aviation work activity at any time. The United States, the household head, and to be few Brazil, Mexico, Great Britain and Japan as their aviation "abolished a rule in small quantity". Inside past, this government each aviation hazard airfares and the route network, and instructed a different operation important matter. The arrangement which their oneself operates in the different airport to agree and from decontrol, by an aviation free Rob and the route to enter a lot and easily go out, the airfares under calling up personnel, it follows in market and it demands that it supplies a misconduct. New aviation the hazard position barrier daytime, is liker that inside the market which abolishes a rule and the United States hundreds of aviation comfort the fact that it will start and (it is short from time to time and only duration when it operates hazard). This inside most big market compared to gets up a company one competition far on the front of decontrol, the even fare above 20% changes the fact that it falls. The service aviation which is sufficient until limit will must agree with newly entering own any time, it will do and it diminishes highly in the ratio which sound bite it will cry to have and the competition which adds the thin thing means, with the freedom which charges a price together. This is thin the thing which furnishes a higher expense foundation and the transportation unit which it establishes it is a compulsion which is important in hazard profitability. International Civil Aviation Organization the same group the security division different life matter of concern and interest establishes a hazard world-wide standard. The most big international air traffic is controlled the distinction which operates a quality above the transportation price which is clear it does by the both sides contract between the country which it transports. That the model of same contract in order to operate the route instructed the airport hazard will be used the Atlantic Ocean traverse misconduct and the transportation unit under nominating after the world war ii which gives an authority to the atlas each government between the United States pe myu it was a multi contract and Great Britain. In order to provide a domestic flight inside a country (rare to be, to paste quite it is presented with cabotage Iss Iss) the both sides contract "in freedom of air," the country puts the group foundation of the traffic right which has become the general anger skies in order to fly from freedom ranging, in freedom. Most big contract the day permits an aviation in the airport which from their motherland it instructs inside the different country: While transporting the passenger with from foreign countries, the third country, in order continuously to provide a service to the destination which inside the different country is different or what kind of also expands freedom. Inside 1990's, "the sky" contract which is being opened became general. This contract this the force which it provides the many thing from the state administration and has it goes and and in competition compared to the international route ten it increases. The sky contract which is being opened his aviation cabotage prohibition because will connect comparison disadvantageously in the United States and theyn some criticism, it was special inside place European Union and it met. Argument of 1 thing is expiration of time in a world-wide mobility and the growth affirmative looking away characteristic which is higher is, that under importance it continued a government domestic intervention it justifies a micro economics loss. The railroad which receives the air inside airline industry government domestic intervention the top to invest history inside most part of the world is the possibility of seeing and in the strategy shape of the transportation which all, with the public road is same in one portion of a wider political consensus. With the profitability which in the future it improves in order for the monopoly anger which the competitive price multiplies transportation price cheap to continue appears to be doing. Because of complication, to aviation by the traveler who is knowledgeable it will can use a many imaginary point inside plan misconduct and maintenance profitability and there is. This airfare secret the many thing little more and compared to is known plentifully in common people and, it is like that and in order description below the aviation is forced a schedule one regulation. The most big aviation use differentiated and in order in different segment to market a air service simultaneously in change price the shape and a price of price discrimination, it charged. The VIP who controls a price until attention passing time of departure until the load factor which inside force by a price point it departs and enters of the total demand, prediction, competitive price and mutation includes the remainder day. The transportation unit each five two of the aircraft it will close the objective which charges a price in hazard multiple travel type (first, enterprise and economy) to divide attains this at any time. The complicating factor is that of source destination control ("O&D control"). From Melbourne $200 in hazard Sydney the ticket $1400 it pays (in one example) and who to purchase Sydney with leads in the misconduct which is identical and su Aen Jel ley su Melbourne it flies and Sip puts out and the flag it does and troublesome army song different Sa Ram Gwa (AUD) it is competing (AUD). $1400 It likes the passenger and aviation, or $1300 it pays, the Sydney los possible Angeles passenger positive to intend the thing $200 is the passenger does do? The aviation thousands hundreds does to hand down the decision which charges the price which is similar everyday. Appearance of the electric computer anger one reservation system which progresses on latter half of 1970's, it will be most prominent and easily in order to what kind of case complete description below, the map it will do a price discrimination and the cavalryman who is permitted the aviation which executes a cost-benefit analysis in different price structure almost (it will talk again and in aircraft each seat consumer in different place it will drive and and in high price possibility of charging without there is) it filled. The price discrimination is spared and as anti-business practice, with price discrimination justice it is defined: The product which is identical hazard different price. This violation law total of the activity which without different aviation is clear, is with technique. This act above law Anh Anh and old-fashioned aviation, in the hub system and price structure at the enterprise in attack, defined this duration with a legal. It selected to peel, which thing inside the low price transportation unit (LCC's) in the old-fashioned price structure which tactic does a new Rob contact or the resources in scene in them was pure with monopoly practice and the legal higher officer sup this Jung Ui Reul (participating) it forbids it did not furnish. The national carrier still the intenionally corpse does at their enterprise the discrimination due to the competitor and volitionally corpse one act it peels and in order to define as it is. The law which protects the enterprise sheds light it could be applied, but the evidence which has a head of a family company one shock without and indirectly not to know in order to restrict the LCC'smanuevaribility inside multi market it is unfair and being treated, with it blooms and it will be able to use their legal positions like this. It sees, them the compatriot a) seniority/grandfathering Daewoo the airport which is clear receives the hazard mutual aid object or the subsidy demand a tax from the hazard US government, or the b) in the edge (bankruptcy the before i.e) where it is a legal condition public finance. In the competitive route at cheap price eight by an aviation in order to describe an effort charges a airfare price the character which is intense the map did a different aviation in duration "fare warfare". The computer leads, the airfares which is new to be quick and it will efficiency can be published with to aviation sale. This objective in that piece of the hazard world aviation above 500 the aviation which distributes a hazard up-to-date fare uses the AirlineTariffPublishingCompany (ATPCO) in the computer reservation system. Air service under establishing, in order to maintain under sufficiency to service aviation there is a top of regulation and administrative expense,: Work, the fuel, the airplane, the engine, extra and attachment, it service and the network, sale distribution it handles an airport equipment and a service, the airport body compared to the ring, training and aviation insurance and different expense. The consequently all but from ticket sale income small percentage outside it is various in supplier or inside cost center is paid at the outside. In order the description below where the aviation at the tax unit acts more at any time, the industry is constructed. The aviation fuel tax exemption, but, is expiration of time in treaty of the chain which exists between the country. The ticket price to them almost to be similar multiple fee and the tax which are to control, and includes a additional charge, these people from first until end passes to the various supplier. The aviation it executes a government rule, hazard also is a responsibility. When the documentation where the aviation is suitable in the international line it transports the passenger without, it gives back them who face each other the origination country back there is a hazard responsibility. It contrasts, company right su wey su thu the aviation separates from continuous 1970 the airline most. Truly, the some origin in order to be a first execution stocks in duration produces southwest, it executes the company with Microsoft it is many and different top the efficiency is superior. This hazard a price civil official the reason which is important their product is reliable and it is. That it controls the service transportation price expense which is sufficient the low price aviation which is started in the converter of century the sharp entrance of new shedding of blood accelerated a demand. Inside inside all phase of business cycle that the low of supplementing the low price company is many from the profit which is consistent company right su wey su thu to pit an aviation inside various respecting southwest together. With the result, s crane U five of aviation it will snap off from the United States and it gets in the different place. My bankruptcy law Yoo age mote tu aviation, American attempt (two time), the Delta Airlines line and the north wey su thu to aviation there was all declaration one bankruptcy, and the American person evaded punishment well! the friend it does like this. Low price sour in order for the particle to enter with a sameness in their domestic market, the Alitalia, the Scandinavian.airlines.system, the SABENA and the Swissair, Japanese air system and the Viasa, in the are Air canada, the Ansett household head and the different person or from 1995 are declaration one bankruptcy shaking Daess. While from the bankruptcy law light oil creditor being protected with the artificial enemy, the aviation division where the green onion of actual close is healthy "it competes the fact that it will diminish the possibility of vampire" aviation and industry hazard compared to it will recover far and it generalizes and the thing and what kind of argues. This and it will remove in opposition and the bankruptcy will want and theyn place massive relationship Doe there was a new aircraft and new commencement hazard cheap inside the accommodating quantity which hazard it re-will input a market as the fleet who increases theyn the place, gives the survivor foundation of the airplane the what kind of indicated the fact that the decrease will be short-lived. The aviation to be high the lever li, because is Ji mobility, aviation accounting positively is complicated. Under operating, it maintains only, the bay it knows and them (or lease) must purchase the new airliner body Doe economy the fleet while creating, it responds must hand down the decision under the internal organs fleet schedule which is important in aim in demand of the engine and their market. 17 different aircraft shedding of blood, the now when it operates a change pilot and each one, engine, maintenance and support necessity in the airplane shedding of blood (step Ing 737 and origin water) which is simple in the eastern piece air line which disappears company right su wey su thu compare the aviation and their trusts. The 2nd public finance problem point does hun and working inside the expense which it is related it is that of He gong oil and fuel purchase at the second grade company. In but, currently high fuel expense reached the most big expense in aviation. Putting around the meter with the hedge inside 2000-2005 durations hazard their oneself inside duration of same increase fuel expense, in their multi times to extend, it will be able to pay and is easy while possibility, all, to be expensive being. In which airport in the many international airport, the right of ownership of the hole the soul which is clear cap the rain loach (in takeoff right in time or night when it is special or aircraft it lands) many aviation hazard intention it will be deep and became the property it will be able to sell and buy. It is clear and the takeoff hole competition aviation in the aviation misconduct to head compared to the business traveler who separates with the chisel inside establishing a competitive advantage, is a possibility of being important at masses hour of day. Compared to it is effective and when to the city which is special there are airports above 2, the market power or their competition in like that reason, most in the airport which is congested few appears the hole to be doing in the place and it is cheaper it sees it omits, it sees the route which will separate few will change the chisel n thing. By the VIP where the appeal which the different airport is related is different, surface transportation facility and the connection which advances, also effect it goes mad and the some long distance misconduct in the most long passage it operates from the thing the fact that does not know in necessity. The code sharing is general shedding of blood of aviation community spirit,; It different aviation misconduct relates the aviation of 1 thing which markets the hazard ticket in the lower part of aviation code of it oneself. This it reached and it sees toe five khyo from in Moscow in misconduct it was a Aeroflot and a Japan Airlines code sharing community spirit inside 1960's,: The Aeroflot used the Aeroflot aircraft and it operated a misconduct, JAL misconduct was like the JAL misconduct marketed the hazard ticket but. This practice aviation in the place foundation in portion of the world the fact that it purchases the establishment one aircraft at least, expands their mobility, puts in the paper. It was different and it saw and in the new JFK route in Austria color to use Sabena step Ing 707 during latter half of 1960's yoke Wien Brussels Sabena Austria community spirit, it was. The route which is various hazard in different aviation share with password one airline reservation demand by a city pair Soo Si Ro ("the show being same or from Chicago in the D5usseldorf misconduct") because of description below, it proposes a Chicago Chicago-D5usseldorf misconduct truly, the n aviation which it will make with list. The passenger advises but, that aviation 1 from something to say Chicago operates a misconduct in Amsterdam, the aviation 2 operates from time to time in the D5usseldorf continuously from very end which (is different a flight in different airplane). In order to increase a sale consequently code sharing the hazard 1st objection explanation to expand the service sacrificial offering of self inside city pair duration. The company it movable combination one, the fuel San'A, in order to attain a height bargaining power the broad way block purchases the airplane at any time. But, the alliance continuously the fuel is same and it purchases a supply and the service which are not visible, it is successful. In order to differentiate from the local competitor the aviation does and hun the fact that it purchases the item which is visible in their passenger. When aviation the domestic competitor who is important flies step Ing airliner, in order to use in the remainder of alliance selecting relationship without the map where the that time aviation will like the Airbus aircraft it does not know. When communicating in the airport or the air traffic control center, each communication possibility of the chartered plane which it plans uses an aviation call signs. The maximum quantity of l- hour gns derives from an aviation goods life well, but it is innocent in English (, description below which does not hand down navigation decision which puts foundation in instruction which is published in aircraft where the pilot Doe is different by mistake in order) which it talks because of history, some aviation and inside air force selling and buying which it diminishes, or necessity is clear and well it is connected with their trade name it sees l- hour gns it uses few. When for example and the American west dozes Oh li but it is numerous with the cactus which reflects that company assumption to prime object from it differentiates to respect, it uses the United States and the Speedbird which inside different aviation and their call signs the west while using, the british airway in the sound which with it predecessor in office and the BOAC boils distinction becomes well uses l- hour gn. The industry is circulating. The result which is meager 45 years precede the result which improves 56 years. Inside but good year the profitability generally afterwords matter of concern and interest and tax is low inside scope of 2-3% net profit. At the time of profit, the aviation the airplane borrows a new occurrence and it responds it raises status in the persistence bedspread and a service. From 1980, the industry was not not to be after the capital during first of hour. In reverse, inside embarrassing situation loss there is a worse possibility with dramatic.
